Interactive Resources for Schools
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Biology
PSHE / Citizenship studies
Biology
PSHE / Citizenship studies
Science (applied)
Chemistry
Biology
Biology
Human biology
Biology
PSHE / Citizenship studies
Science (applied)
Biotechnologybiotechnology
The use of biological organisms or enzymes to create, break down or transform a material.
has been around for centuries as people have used microorganisms to make beer, wine, bread, yoghurts and cheeses. But since the beginning of the 20th century, the nature of biotechnology has changed dramatically.
One area of biotechnology which everyone has heard of is genetic engineering. We now have genetically modifiedgenetically modified
This indicates that an animal or plant has had its genetic makeup altered in some way. This is often by combining the genes from different organisms to produce an organism with desirable characteristics.
organisms ranging from bacteriabacteria
Single-celled organism. Has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm. Its DNA is loosely-coiled in the cytoplasm and there is no distinct nucleus.
to cows and sheep which produce life-saving medicines including vaccines, insulin and blood-clotting factors. Genetically modified bacteria can even make the lung surfactantlung surfactant
complex of lipids and proteins produced by the alveoli. It reduces surface tension at the water-air interface, thus allowing breathing.
needed to reduce the surface tensionsurface tension
property of the surface of a liquid, caused by the attraction of surface particles, which minimises surface area and allows resistance to external forces.
at the water-air interface and allow breathing in the lungs. Hundreds of thousands of people benefit from the chemicals these very special organisms produce.
This baby girl, born unexpectedly early at 30 weeks, needed synthetic lung surfactantlung surfactant
complex of lipids and proteins produced by the alveoli. It reduces surface tension at the water-air interface, thus allowing breathing.
to help her breathe when she was born.
It saved her life - and she went home 5 weeks later
Recent developments include CRISPR-Cas9CRISPR-Cas9
A genome editing tool, based on a bacterial system, which provides a precise, fast and relatively cheap method for manipulating the genome of an organism.
, a genome editing tool which is faster, cheaper and – most importantly – more accurate than our earlier techniques for modifying genes. This makes it easier to change the genome in cells with a mutationmutation
A change in the arrangement or amount of genetic material in a cell.
preventing them from carrying out their normal function. It also allows us to manipulate the genomes of bacteriabacteria
Single-celled organism. Has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm. Its DNA is loosely-coiled in the cytoplasm and there is no distinct nucleus.
more efficiently so they make chemicals we can use in human medicine.
These developments mean we are closer than ever to using gene editinggene editing
A relatively new alternative term for genetic engineering, also known as genome editing.
to treat conditions from cancer and diabetes to high cholesterolcholesterol
A lipid which can be measured in the blood. High levels are linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
levels. In 2017, scientists announced that they had treated a boy severely affected by sickle cell anaemiasickle cell anaemia
A recessive genetic disorder which affects the structure of the haemoglobin and so the shape of the red blood cells.
, genetically modifying his bone marrowbone marrow
Found in the centre of bones, it contains adult stem cells which divide and differentiate to produce red and white blood cells.
and replacing it. For 15 months this modified bone marrow has replicated and made healthy red blood cellsred blood cells
Carry oxygen in the blood. They are also known as erythrocytes.
, allowing the boy to live a normal life without medication. If this continues, scientists will have developed a cure for a genetic condition which affects millions of people worldwide.
The polymerase chain reactionpolymerase chain reaction
PCR is a series of temperature-controlled reactions which enable us to amplify a very tiny sample of DNA, producing enough material for it to be analysed or used in DNA profiling.
has enabled scientists to make large quantities of DNA from tiny samples. This in turn has made much of the most recent and exciting DNA technology possible. The ability to sequence the human genomehuman genome
The complete sequence of all 20,000-25,000 human genes. That is, which chromosomes they are in and whereabouts the gene appears on that chromosome's piece of DNA.
, identifying genes and what they do, and DNA fingerprinting and its amazing role in solving crimes all depend for their success on the polymerase chain reaction.
Amazingly, the polymerase chain reaction which underpins modern work on genomics
depends on enzymes which originated in extremophiles living in hot springs.
The Human Genomehuman genome
The complete sequence of all 20,000-25,000 human genes. That is, which chromosomes they are in and whereabouts the gene appears on that chromosome's piece of DNA.
Project, which sequenced the whole of the human DNA for the first time, and the follow-up 1000 Genomes Project, have been massive international efforts of biotechnologybiotechnology
The use of biological organisms or enzymes to create, break down or transform a material.
. The 100,000 Genome Project is an English venture, sequencing 100,000 genomes from NHS patients with rare disease and their families, and patients with cancer. The results of all these projects help us understand the mechanisms of disease at a genetic level. They are also being used to develop personalised medicinepersonalised medicine
Medical model in which a treatment is customised for a particular patient, designed to work with their individual genome, so treatment delivers the maximum benefit with the minimum risk of side effects.
s which are designed to work effectively with individual genomes. Information from DNA sequencingDNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of working out the precise sequence of nucleotides within a strand of DNA.
helps us design very specifically targeted pharmaceutical molecules. These will provide better treatments which could probably be given at lower doses. What's more, these new medicines are likely to have relatively few side effects because they will work with our individual genetic makeup rather than against it.
Sequencing the DNA of the pathogens which cause infectious diseases is also opening up many new possibilities for effective therapies. Bacteriabacteria
Single-celled organism. Has a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm. Its DNA is loosely-coiled in the cytoplasm and there is no distinct nucleus.
l genomes can now be sequenced in under a day. This technology is already being used to identify strains of TB-causing bacteria and ensure the most effective antibioticantibiotic
Medicine that is used to treat bacterial infections and works by killing or stopping the growth and reproduction of bacteria. These can be specific to a particular bacteria or act on groups of related bacteria.
is used, as well as for tracking down the sources of hospital-acquired infections in premature babies. In the future, pathogen sequencing may change the way we tackle many infectious diseases.
Knowledge of the human genome is also making it easier to test for genetic diseases. Gene probes have been developed to test for known genetic disorders. What’s more, as our understanding of the human genome increases we are finding out more about our genetic tendency to develop diseases like cancer and heart disease. Diagnostic tests for mutationmutation
A change in the arrangement or amount of genetic material in a cell.
s which give rise to conditions ranging from high blood cholesterolcholesterol
A lipid which can be measured in the blood. High levels are linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
levels to cystic fibrosiscystic fibrosis
A genetic disease caused by a defective, recessive allele. It is characterised by the production of thick, sticky mucous in the lungs and pancreas which cause respiratory and digestive problems.
have been developed, and many more are in the pipeline. This in turn will help us to make lifestyle plans to help us remain healthy – choosing our diets, our exercise levels and our jobs to make sure we avoid situations our genes are not well equipped to cope with.
Gene therapygene therapy
A new, experimental method of fighting disease by replacing a defective gene with a healthy gene.
is another area of medical biotechnology which is still in the early stages of development. The hope is that gene technology such as CRISPR-Cas9CRISPR-Cas9
A genome editing tool, based on a bacterial system, which provides a precise, fast and relatively cheap method for manipulating the genome of an organism.
will help scientists develop ways to correct mistakes in the DNA code which lead to genetic diseases such as severe combined immunodeficiencysevere combined immunodeficiency
A very rare genetic disorder causing children to be born without an effective immune system, so they are extremely vulnerable to any form of infection.
(SCID), Duchenne muscular dystrophymuscular dystrophy
Inherited condition which leads to the progressive weakening and breakdown of muscles. This in turn leads to increasing levels of disability. In its most severe forms it can be fatal.
and cystic fibrosis.
Medicine also benefits from many sensitive tests which indicate the presence or absence of substances in body fluids. Biotechnological advances in the use of immobilised enzymes and monoclonal antibodiesmonoclonal antibodies
Antibodies all made from a single clone of specialist cells used in both medical diagnostics and treatments.
mean these tests have become increasingly rapid and accurate in recent years. A common example is a pregnancy test. It used to take weeks – now it can be done at home on the first day of a missed period and the results are ready in minutes!
Many of the new tests lead to either improved diagnosis, improved treatments – or both. Examples include:
Cloning – making genetically identical copies of an organism – is not new biotechnologybiotechnology
The use of biological organisms or enzymes to create, break down or transform a material.
. Gardeners and farmers have been cloning plants for centuries. The new developments which have caused much controversy involve the cloning of mammals, from sheep to pigs to humans. The technology holds out many exciting possibilities for producing herds of genetically modifiedgenetically modified
This indicates that an animal or plant has had its genetic makeup altered in some way. This is often by combining the genes from different organisms to produce an organism with desirable characteristics.
animals making useful medicines in their milk. There is also the very real possibility of producing new tissues for transplanttransplant
The process of replacing a damaged or diseased organ with a healthy organ from a dead or living donor.
ation which would not cause any rejectionrejection
The process by which the immune system of the body can reject a transplanted organ.
problems – because they would be clonedcloned
To propagate (an organism or cell) as a clone
from the patient themselves. But there are some real concerns about the ethics of this work and society is still deciding what is the right way to go.
More controversial developments in biotechnologybiotechnology
The use of biological organisms or enzymes to create, break down or transform a material.
involve research into the use of stem cells. Embryonic stem cellsembryonic stem cells
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are undifferentiated, pluripotent cells derived from the inner mass of an early embryo at the blastocyst stage.
are taken from the ball of cells which makes up the early human embryo. They have the potential to grow and develop into new tissues or organs to replace others which are worn out or diseased. The use of human embryos means that it is also, for some people, very controversial.
Another alternative is the use of stem cells taken from adults. They cannot form as many tissues as embryonic stem cells and are harder to find and grow, but there are fewer ethical issues about using them. This area of biotechnology is still at a very early stage but the potential for medical advances is enormous.
Trials using both iPSCiPSC
These are induced pluripotent stem cells which are produced from differentiated adult cells.
(induced pluripotentpluripotent
(of an immature cell or stem cell) capable of differentiating to form almost any type of cell in the body except those of the placenta and amniotic membranes.
stem cells) and hESChESC
These are pluripotent stem cells which originate from the inner cells of an early (before implantation) human embryo known as the blastocyst.
(human embryonic stem cells) are taking place in countries around the world, looking at potential cures for diseases ranging from sickle cell anaemiasickle cell anaemia
A recessive genetic disorder which affects the structure of the haemoglobin and so the shape of the red blood cells.
and wet and dry age-related macular degenerationage-related macular degeneration
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an eye condition which can develop with age, affecting the central area of the retina (the macula) and causing loss of vision, often in both eyes. In dry AMD the cells of the macula are damaged by fatty deposits, while in wet AMD abnormal blood vessels form beneath the macula and damage the cells.
, to forms of muscular dystrophymuscular dystrophy
Inherited condition which leads to the progressive weakening and breakdown of muscles. This in turn leads to increasing levels of disability. In its most severe forms it can be fatal.
, severe heart failureheart failure
When the heart fails to pump blood effectively round the body as a result of the weakening or stiffening of the cardiac muscle or as a result of damaged heart valves.
and type 1 diabetestype 1 diabetes
Develops when the body does not produce the right amount of insulin or, in some cases, does not produce any at all. It must be treated with daily injections of insulin. People affected also need to manage their diet, eat regularly and plan exercise carefully to balance their energy needs with their food and insulin intake.
.
Scientists have even managed to create artificial mice embryos using two different types of stem cells – embryonic stem cells and the extra-embryonic trophoblast stem cellstrophoblast stem cells
Stem cells which lead to the development of the placenta, not the embryo itself.
which form the placenta - within an artificial 3-D scaffolding. They grew the embryos for 14 days. The next challenge is the production of artificial human embryos, which may be used for research into why some early embryos fail to implant or result in early miscarriage.
Nanotechnology involves particles or objects which are 1-100 nanometreNanometre
unit of length equivalent to 0.001μm
s in size (1 nm = 10-9 m). Nanoparticlesnanoparticles
Very small particles which are less than 100nm in diameter.
have huge potential - the combination of nanoparticles with biological molecules is proving a very powerful technology in medicine, in agriculture and in food technology.
In medicine, nanotechnology is finding many uses in diagnostics – for example, gold nanoparticle tags can be attached to probes to identify sequences of DNA. They can be used to deliver drugs to target cells extremely efficiently and accurately. This reduces side effects and medicine wastage – and the nanoparticles are harmless to the body. There are also exciting developments using nanoparticles in tissue engineering, using them as scaffolding to encourage the growth of new tissues.
In agriculture, potential uses for nanotechnology include increasing the uptake of minerals or water from the soil by plants, diagnosing plant diseases, providing protection from pests and delivering medicines or vaccines to farm animals. And in the food industry, applications of nanotechnology ranging from flavour enhancement and food preservation to tests for contamination are being investigated and trialled right now.
